Musk deer - secretions from the musk glands
During the 2011 Women’s World Cup in Germany, athletes who tested positive for endogenous steroid hormones reportedly stated that they had used extracts (secretions) from the musk glands of East Asian musk deer [1].
What are musk deer?
Musk deer were originally considered a subfamily of deer, whereas today they are classified as a distinct family of deer. Musk deer live in mountainous regions, preferably at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,500 meters. Known species include those found in the Himalayas (Moschus leucogaster) as well as in various mountain ranges in Korea, China (Moschus berezovskii), Siberia (Moschus moschiferus), Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.
What are musk glands?
Only the male animal possesses a musk gland, which is located in front of the genitals. The gland secretes a strongly scented brownish substance. During the rutting season, the male deer uses this to mark its territory. The secretions of the musk gland (musk) are used in perfume production as well as in traditional Chinese medicine.
Due to the high market value of musk and ruthless hunting, the deer population is critically endangered. It is estimated that 160 male musk deer are killed for the traditional extraction of one kilogram of natural musk gland extract.
What do musk gland secretions contain?
In addition to muscone, the primary scent compound, which accounts for 0.5 to 2% of the content, musk glands contain a high proportion of lipids. The chemical composition of the lipid fraction in musk glands of musk deer was reported in two publications from 1975 and 1987 [2, 3]. According to these studies, the gland secretions contain a high proportion of steroid hormones. Sokolov et al. (1987) identified the eight most abundant steroid hormones (Fig. 1) in the musk glands of Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus).
Fig. 1 from Sokolov et al. 1987
Of these steroids, substances III and VI are explicitly listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Prohibited List under Group S.1.1.b. endogenous anabolic androgenic steroid hormones (AAS).
Significance as a doping agent
Can the use of musk gland secretions lead to positive doping test results?
Answer: Yes
When detecting doping with endogenous steroids in urine samples, isotope mass spectrometric analysis of the steroids is performed following abnormalities in the steroid profile, such as elevated testosterone/epitestosterone ratios and increased concentrations of the steroids androstenedione, etiocholanolone, testosterone, and epitestosterone. The target analytes analyzed in this process are androsterone (III), etiocholanolone (V), 5α-androstandiol, and 5β-androstandiol (VII), as well as testosterone.
Thus, following the administration of musk gland secretions from East Asian musk deer, it is entirely possible that, after oral intake of the steroids described in Fig. 1, sustained changes in the isotopic values of the normally endogenously produced and urinally excreted steroids androsterone (III), etiocholanolone (V), and 5β-androstandiol (VII)—which are normally produced endogenously and excreted in urine—may be observed, leading to a positive test result.
However, these three endogenous steroids are also metabolites of both testosterone and testosterone prohormones. Their isotope values are significantly altered upon exogenous administration of testosterone or testosterone prohormones, thereby enabling the detection of prohibited use of endogenous steroid hormones.
References
[1] Thevis M, Schänzer W, Geyer H, Thieme D, Große J, Rautenberg C, Flenker U, Beuck S, Thomas A, Holland R, Dvorak J: Traditional Chinese Medicine and Sports Drug Testing: Identification of Natural Steroid Administration in Doping Control Urine Samples Resulting from Musk (Pod) Extracts. Br J Sports Med. 2013 Jan;47(2):109-14.
See abstract
[2] Sokolov, VE; Kagan, MZ; Vasilieva, VS, et al. Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus) - Reinvestigation of Main Lipid Components from Preputial Gland Secretion, Journal of Chemical Ecology Volume: 13 Issue: 1 (1987) 71–83
[3] Do, JC, Kitatsuii, E and Yohii, E. Study on the components of musk. I. Ether-soluble components. Chem Pharm Bull, 23 (1975) 629-635.
Institute of Biochemistry at DSHS Cologne, last updated July 21, 2011
