Department of Performance Psychology - Projects

Project Leaders:

Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab, Prof. Dr. Ricarda Schubotz (University of Münster), Dr. Alexandra Pizzera

Project staff:

Dr. Dennis Redlich

Duration:

September 1, 2023 – August 31, 2026

Funding:

German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:

How relevant are incidental movement noises to motor learning and movement perception? Using hurdling as an example, we will test the hypothesis in three behavioral and neurofunctional experiments that motor learning and motor perception are negatively influenced by deprivation and positively influenced by reinforcement of incidental movement sounds. The study aims to investigate long-term effects on motor learning and perception, as well as the immediate and long-term plastic functional and structural neural correlates.

Project Lead:

Dr. Laura Voigt (German Sport University Cologne)

Collaborating partners:

Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab (German Sport University Cologne), Prof. Dr. Rich Masters (University of Waikato, New Zealand), Dr. Arne Nieuwenhuys (University of Auckland, New Zealand)                                                                                                                                                                                                 

Duration:

October 1, 2025 – September 30, 2028

Funding:

German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:

How can people maintain their performance in high-pressure situations, even though decisions must be made quickly and with significant consequences? The project investigates the underlying mechanisms of performance stability and performance failure in high-pressure situations from a psychological perspective focused on action.

The focus is on the empirical testing of the Theory of Simplified Information Processing in Action, which describes motor heuristics and movement analogies as functionally equivalent strategies for simplifying information processing. While motor heuristics support movement selection through simplified decision-making rules, movement analogies facilitate movement execution by linking new movements to already familiar movement patterns and bundling information into larger units.

The central hypothesis of the project is that both strategies—despite differing cognitive mechanisms—contribute to reducing cognitive load during action and thereby prevent performance drops under pressure. A total of eight experiments will investigate whether, how, and under what conditions motor heuristics and movement analogies stabilize performance in high-pressure situations.

Dynamic tasks from table tennis, in which complex movements must be selected and executed simultaneously, serve as the experimental paradigm. By combining performance-related, cognitive, and behavioral measurements, the aim is to gain insights into how people maintain their ability to act in everyday situations as well as in safety- and performance-critical contexts (e.g., sports, emergency medicine, law enforcement).

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Dr. Babett Lobinger, Dr. Lisa Musculus, Dr. Laura Will 

Project team members:
Dr. Dennis Redlich
, Hanna de Haan (Ph.D. candidate)

Duration:
December 2021 – July 2028

Funding:
Federal Institute for Sports Science (BISp)

Project details:
Seven top Olympic federations, together with their athletes, will work with an interdisciplinary team of scientists on individual and holistic performance development. Project website

Project Lead:

Dr. Laura Will

Duration: 

October 2024 – November 2025 (or May 2026 – cost-neutral extension)

Project details:

This basic research aims to investigate the interaction between aesthetic experience and the assessment of skills in athletic movements, particularly in non-aesthetic sports. Theoretical perspectives on aesthetic experiences will be discussed, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive model applicable to dynamic movements. By focusing on gender-neutral sports, the research seeks to uncover biases in aesthetic criteria and the assessment of skills and to gain insights into the complex interplay between aesthetics, skills, and gender perception, which would advance a new core topic and foster collaborations within the German Sport University Cologne.

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab, Dr. Laura Voigt

Project staff:
Maša Iskra (Ph.D. project)

Duration:
since March 2022

Funding:
Embodied Choices Graduate School

Project details: 

Based on the Embodied Choices approach, physical processes—including one’s current physiological state—play a central role in decision-making processes. This project investigates the relationship between psychophysiological activation—induced by controlled breathing techniques (paced breathing)—and decision-making processes across four studies. First, changes in cardiac sympathetic and parasympathetic activity during slow and fast breathing rhythms were quantified. Subsequently, the effects of breathing-induced increases and decreases in physiological arousal were examined in a computer-based decision-making task with multiple decision attributes. In a further step, the transition from a computer-based experimental design to a more realistic task structure is being implemented: The influence of breathing-induced activation is currently being investigated in a sport-specific decision-making task in basketball (passing decisions). This task was developed based on a scoping review comprising 371 sport-specific decision-making tasks with corresponding stimuli (Iskra et al., 2025). Overall, the project makes both a theoretical and methodological contribution by clarifying the effects of controlled breathing techniques on physiological and motor-cognitive processes while simultaneously developing a more realistic decision-making task in basketball.

Project Director:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab

Project staff:
Patricia Grove (Ph.D. project)

Duration:
2021–2026

Project details:

This doctoral project investigates the relationship between motor control, decision-making processes, and mindfulness. The central question is to what extent mindfulness can help reduce the performance-inhibiting effects of the psychological phenomenon known as reinvestment. Reinvestment describes the attempt to consciously control movements using declarative knowledge, to actively intervene in decision-making processes, or to overanalyze decisions that have already been made. In sports, this can lead to a decline in performance, particularly in high-pressure situations. Therefore, specific intervention approaches are needed to support athletes with a high tendency toward reinvestment. One possible approach involves developing a mindfulness-based intervention that more strongly connects body and mind. Unlike traditional sports psychology techniques, mindfulness does not aim to suppress or control negative thoughts or emotions, but rather to consciously perceive and accept them. Accepting poor decisions or failed movements without self-critical evaluation can help reduce rumination and decrease conscious control over movement and decision-making processes. This could promote automated action processes and the experience of flow states, thereby minimizing the influence of reinvestment on athletic performance.

Project Leader:
PD Dr. Florian Loffing

Project staff:
Miguel Reuss (Ph.D. project)

Duration:
through March 2028

Project details:

The goal of this doctoral project is to systematically investigate the significance of individual motor abilities for anticipatory actions based on the “embodied cognition” approach and to identify potential constraints under which an otherwise presumed connection does not exist. According to the current plan, three experimental studies are planned for this purpose.

Project Director:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab

Project staff:
Hanna de Haan (Ph.D. project)

Duration:
April 2022 – March 2027

Funding:
Federal Institute for Sports Science (BISP), in:prove project

Project details:

This dissertation investigates when, how, and at what level hormonal fluctuations associated with the menstrual cycle influence performance-related processes in naturally menstruating individuals.

Project Title:
Intra-individual Performance Prediction in German Youth Training Centers: A Multidimensional and Longitudinal Analysis of Performance-Related Psychological Factors in Talent Development

Project participants:
Marten Bischoff, Lisa Musculus, Babett Lobinger, Markus Raab

Project details (summary):
This dissertation project examines the role of psychological factors in talent development in professional youth soccer. Against the backdrop of increasing professionalization and intense competition in German youth training centers, a multidimensional and longitudinal research approach is being pursued.
Over a period of more than two years, changes in key psychological constructs among youth soccer players will be recorded and correlated with athletic performance and success. The focus is on motivational-volitional factors (e.g., self-efficacy), emotional factors (e.g., competition anxiety), cognitive factors (e.g., soccer-specific decision-making processes), and the talent environment. The goal is, first, to examine the stability or malleability of these constructs within a homogeneous cohort of talented athletes, and second, to determine their significance in explaining and predicting athletic performance. By combining cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, both inter- and intra-individual developmental trajectories can be depicted in a differentiated manner. The results are intended to contribute to the long-term optimization of talent identification and development while also providing theoretical insights for talent development research.

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab, Prof. Martin Fischer (University of Potsdam)

Project staff:
Alexej Michirev (Ph.D. candidate)

Duration:
January 2020 – January 2023

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
We have all learned and experienced the three dimensions of space, time, and quantity. We learn to perceive and process these in terms of “more than…” and “less than….” No one is born with an understanding of the meaning of the symbol “5.” The journey toward understanding begins with our bodies. We observe how a ball appears smaller as it moves away from us. We learn that it moves faster when we push it harder. Eventually, we begin to count with our fingers.

We learn with our bodies—that is the perspective of embodiment.
Current literature reveals clear associations between numbers and space. Smaller numbers are associated with the left side of space, and larger numbers with the right side. Evidence for the remaining aspects of three-dimensional space is still scarce.

In this project, the associations between numbers and space are examined more closely from the perspective of embodiment. For example, we want to know to what extent the body is involved in learning numbers. We also want to find out when the interactions between body and cognition occur during numerical tasks. Furthermore, we want to test number-space associations outside the horizontal axis and verify predictions.

More info about the project

Since January 2017, the Institute of Psychology (Department of Performance Psychology) has been one of six European partners in the project “Be a Winner in Elite Sports and Employment Before and After Athletic Retirement” (B-WISER for short). The project aims to examine the “dual career” of elite athletes, particularly during the transition from the end of their athletic careers to the start of their professional lives. It will closely examine the possibilities and limitations of support, as well as the specific skills athletes bring to the job market, in order to optimize long-term employment opportunities for (former) elite athletes.

This two-year project is funded by the European Union’s Erasmus+ program. The “lead partner” of the two-year project is the Vrije Universiteit Brussel in Belgium; Italy, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden are also represented as project partners. In addition to the universities, the respective national Olympic sports federations—the DOSB for Germany—are cooperation partners. Furthermore, Adecco, as a staffing agency that supports athletes in their career choices as part of the athlete program, is a key project partner in the respective countries.

The funding (€0.4 million) enables the 13 partners and 39 experts from the six EU member states to conduct intensive Europe-wide research to determine how the employment of athletes and former athletes within Europe can be improved.

In the first project phase, the B-WISER project will identify existing structures and measures that support “competitive sports and employment.” In a subsequent step, it will identify the skills that enable athletes to balance competitive sports and professional employment within the framework of a dual career—skills necessary to facilitate a successful transition from professional sports to the labor market at the end of their athletic careers.

In the subsequent phases of the B-WISER project, the added value for employers of hiring (former) athletes will be explored, and “best practices” examples will be identified and developed to optimize collaboration between (former) athletes and (future) employers. This project enables universities and colleges, sports federations and umbrella organizations, as well as career counselors, to optimize the processes and trajectories of dual careers in elite and competitive sports and thus provide athletes with the best possible support.

The team of all participating project partners—comprising universities, national and international Olympic and Paralympic committees (NOC, BPC, IOC, IPC), elite sports funding agencies, career counselors, experts from the private sector, and other international sports experts—is coordinated by Prof. Wylleman and his team at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Dr. Babett Lobinger and Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab represent the German Sport University Cologne; they are supported by Sinikka Heisler and Franziska Kalde as research assistants. 

B-WISER website: www.bwiser.eu 

B-WISER Twitter: @BWiser_DC

B-WISER Representatives at DSHS: Dr. Babett Lobinger, Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab

B-WISER EU Coordinator: Info@­bwiser.eu

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Prof. Dr. Stefan Künzel
, Dr. Rita de Oliviera
, Dr. Laura Bröker
, Harald Ewolds

Project details:
When two or more tasks must be performed simultaneously, this is referred to as multitasking. Our research project investigates the flexibility of performance in dual-tasking. We combine sensorimotor and cognitive tasks. In the first funding period, we found that predictions based on perception or knowledge can reduce the cost of dual-tasking. However, this only improves performance in the predicted task; the other task does not benefit from it, unless the characteristics of the tasks are interdependent. We suspect two reasons for this: If only one task is predicted, it could be prioritized; if there is interdependence, the two tasks could be conceptualized as a single task. We are investigating these two strategies in the second funding period. In Project A, we investigate, in the context of dual tasks, the extent to which individual predictors lead to task prioritization, and in Project B, whether conceptualizing the tasks as one or two has an influence on performance. In our research series, these processing strategies will first be tested experimentally. To do this, we use the “typing while tracking” dual-task, in which participants must type a sequence of numbers with their left hand while keeping a moving cursor as close to the center as possible with their right hand. In Project A, we manipulate behavioral consequences by varying rewards and punishments and investigate in Phase 1 whether individual differences among participants—such as risk-taking behavior, approach and avoidance behavior, preferences, and attentional processes—lead to interindividual differences in prioritization. In Phase 2, drawing on decision field theory, we develop and validate a model that predicts task prioritization based on individual differences. In Project B, by varying instructions (one or two tasks) and feedback (cumulative or separate) in Phase 1, we investigate the influence of conceptualizing a dual task on performance. In Phase 2, we test whether conceptualization as a single task is suitable as a general strategy for multitasking and whether there are individual differences in the ability to conceptualize. Finally, in the joint Phase 3, we examine whether task-specific prioritization and conceptualization can be trained to improve multitasking performance and whether multitasking tasks can be specifically tailored to certain individuals. In summary, our project helps to understand the individuality of multitasking performance. From a theoretical perspective, our research helps answer the question of whether people experience performance deficits in multitasking for structural reasons or whether they can adapt flexibly.

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. M. Raab
, Prof. Dr. Rouwen Cañal-Bruland

Project staff member:
Jonna Löffler (Ph.D. candidate in the project)

Duration:
November 2014 – November 2017

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Embodied cognition explains the phenomenon that abstract knowledge, such as representations of time and space, is partly grounded in sensorimotor processes. Based on the assumption of a bidirectional relationship, it is predicted that movements influence the perception of time and space, and that changes in representations of time and space influence movement control. The goal of the project is the empirical and systematic analysis of the bidirectionality hypothesis from an embodied cognition perspective, which is based on the interaction between humans and their environment through movement. Empirical findings show that, on the one hand, representations of time are moderated by spatial metaphors, whereas, on the other hand, temporal metaphors do not influence spatial representations to the same extent. This asymmetry in the metaphorical mapping of space and time allows specific predictions to be tested experimentally. The unique value and novelty of the project lies in the investigation of these bidirectionality and asymmetry hypotheses based on the assessment of the influence of kinematic qualities of whole-body movements on spatial and temporal representations, and the influence of temporal and spatial metaphorical instructions on movement qualities.

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Dr. Tanja Hohmann (German Sport University Cologne)
, Prof. Dr. Ricarda I. Schubotz (University of Münster)

Project staff until 2014:
Christian Kennel (Ph.D. candidate in the project)
Dr. Alexandra Pizzera (project manager) 

Duration:
2011–2014, continuation: 2016–2019 "Auditory Re-Afferences in Movement Control? Behavioral and Neurophysiological Effects of Compensation during Interference and Deprivation"

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Current approaches in cognitive science discuss the role of the motor system in cognitive processes. The question arises as to whether some “cognitive” functions might have evolved from genuinely “motor” or “body-related” functions. The goal of this transdisciplinary research series is to investigate whether the same mechanisms used to control one’s own movements are also central to the perception of events in the environment. Using behavioral and neuroscientific methods, this will be examined using the example of the perception of auditory re-afferents. The research program represents an extension of current theoretical developments by, on the one hand, comparing the underlying mechanisms of the ability to control movement with those of the ability to predict events, and, on the other hand, comprehensively investigating the role of acoustic re-afferents within movement control and perception for the first time.

Project partners:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Prof. Dr. Otmar Bock
, Prof. Dr. Heiko Strüder

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Ongoing projects in movement and neuroscience can be significantly expanded through the acquisition of eye-tracking and kinematic recording systems, as well as mobile EEG. The projects at the German Sport University, which are to be carried out by the project partners, are difficult to implement without these systems, as their use in the projects requires a combination of measurement systems on-site and necessitates complex, sometimes simultaneous motion tracking. Such systems, and especially their combination, are not available at the German Sport University (DSHS), making systematic investigation of the research questions impossible without them. Cooperation agreements within the DSHS (Prof. Strüder, Prof. Bock) as well as with partners (MPI for Neurological Research for MRI imaging; Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; University of Potsdam) establish a research network.
Key research areas within the field of performance psychology will utilize the equipment to address the following questions: The influence of the valence and arousal of emotions on option selection and option execution; the influence of prior motor or visual experiences on referees’ decisions; culturally related training and playing experiences and their influence on eye movements as well as intuitive and deliberative decision-making processes; the neural implementation of the yips in golf; and the neural correlates of acoustic self- and other-recognition.  Furthermore, the devices are to be used in the context of “embodied cognition”: In a collaboration with the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the effect of spatial and temporal instructions on movement control, as well as the influence of movements on the representation of space and time, will be examined. In another new DFG grant application with the University of Potsdam (Prof. Fischer), the effect of arm and hand movements on problem-solving tasks and mathematical tasks is being examined, as well as their neural implementation. The devices are also to be used in the “joint action” context, particularly with regard to movement control and perception, as well as the relationship between emotions and the generation and selection of options. Prof. Bock’s group is investigating the effect of the context of an action (such as grasping), as well as its interaction with aging and apraxia. Finally, Prof. Strüder and Dr. Mierau are studying the cortical processes of complex whole-body movements as a function of skill level.  

Project Leaders:
Laura Bröker (Ph.D. candidate)
, Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Prof. Dr. Stefan Künzell
, Dr. Rita de Oliveira

Duration:
2015–2018

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Multitasking occurs when two or more tasks are performed simultaneously. Most studies have focused on the parallel execution of two tasks, known as the dual-tasking paradigm. It is commonly observed that performance declines under dual-tasking conditions compared to single-tasking conditions. The mechanisms underlying this dual-task interference have been extensively investigated. The research strategy involved inferring the duration of cognitive processing from reaction times (RT) measured in experiments. Throughout history, various theories regarding the occurrence of dual-task interference have been developed and supported. For example, bottleneck theories postulate the existence of a central unit that processes information serially. When this unit is occupied, other processes must queue up until the unit becomes available again. Welford (1974) and Pashler (1994) identified response selection as this instance, but others have argued for bottlenecks occurring earlier or later in the information processing stream (Meyer & Kieras, 1997). Another approach is the claim made by capacity models, which accept parallel processing but postulate a general capacity limit that is either global and nonspecific (Kahneman, 1973) or divided into multiple modular capacities (Navon & Gopher, 1979; Wickens, 2008).

While these experimental paradigms have successfully investigated cognitive processes and dual-task interference, they are unsuitable for uncovering the mechanisms of interference. This is of great importance, as knowledge of the mechanisms would make it possible to discover strategies for minimizing interference. In RT paradigms, it is important that neither the stimulus nor the response can be anticipated, as anticipation would compromise the validity of the RT measurement. We argue that, in contrast to the laboratory setting, anticipation and planning of tasks are common methods for controlling movements in everyday life. Künzell et al. (2013), for example, showed that everyday movements are planned in advance in such a way that optimal control is possible during the critical phase of the movement. Ruthruff et al. (2006) speculated that one way to manage dual tasks is to plan one task in advance and buffer this plan; while this task is guided by the buffered plan, the second task can be planned and executed without interference. While Ruthruff et al. (2006) excluded the use of predictive strategies in their experimental design, we will investigate how these strategies would improve performance in multitasking situations. We argue that this predictive strategy is dominant in well-learned activities of daily living for coping with dual- and multitasking demands. When walking, for example, a path must be scanned for obstacles, uneven surfaces, and puddles. Steps are monitored based on the expected effects of these features (Patla, 1998). Soccer and basketball players also perform ball dribbling using feedforward control while perceiving the playing patterns of teammates and opponents to make tactical decisions (Esteves, de Oliveira, & Araújo, 2011). We assume that dual tasks can be performed successfully if at least one of the tasks is well-learned and takes place in a predictable environment (situational enhancement).

Our proposal focuses on the question of how predictability can support multitasking performance through situational enhancement. This is a crucial factor in the research cluster on flexibility (Kiesel, Müller, & Koch, 2014), as it focuses on strategies for overcoming potential performance limitations. Furthermore, it complements research on situational impairment (Kiesel et al., 2014). While Kiesel et al. focus on the situational impairment of multitasking performance, we will focus on predictability as a source of situational enhancement of multitasking performance. This idea is not new (Ruthruff et al., 2006), but previous research has lacked a clear theoretical explanation and empirical investigations. Nevertheless, some theoretical ideas are consistent with the concept we refer to in the next paragraph.

Further information on "Human Performance under Multiple Cognitive Task Demands: From Fundamental Mechanisms to Optimized Task Planning": DFG Priority Program (Focus Program) SPP 1772

Project Leader:
PD Dr. Roman Liepelt

Project staff:
Thomas Hosang

Duration:
2015–2018

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Multitasking is becoming an increasingly widespread phenomenon in modern society, as we are confronted with ever-growing demands on our multitasking abilities in both our daily lives and our professional lives. Technical devices, for example, increasingly require visual-manual interactions in which perception and action occur within a shared visual-spatial domain (manual control of tablets). Modern tablet PCs, which are controlled with the fingers, are also being used more and more frequently to control workflows in complex technical work environments where multiple tasks must be handled simultaneously, such as in the cockpits of trains and modern aircraft. However, current research on the processing of body-related information clearly shows that body information plays an important role in cognitive processes. For example, a recent study shows that there is an effect of the spatial distance between the responding hand and the stimulus. When hands and stimuli are located within the same visual-spatial focus of attention, this leads to increased allocation of attention to the area around the hand region and to enhanced cognitive control. An important feature of dual-tasking is that multiple stimuli must be processed simultaneously. In this project, we investigate the effects of hand proximity on dual-task processing under conditions of simultaneous stimulus presentation. One goal of the project is to specify cognitive control parameters that are specifically influenced by the proximity of body information to the stimulus. We are investigating whether altered visuospatial attention affects both stimuli equally in the spatial area between both hands and how the position of the hands alters cognitive control parameters involved in task-switching processes at the central processing bottleneck. Furthermore, we investigate the influence of enhanced stimulus processing in the immediate vicinity of the hands on the prioritization of task order and the reconfiguration processes involved in changing the task order. The body-based cognition approach to multitasking is intended not only to advance theoretical models in basic research on the flexibility of cognitive control processes and the coordination of task sets in dual-task conditions, but also to provide new impetus for knowledge transfer to applied cognitive research and the further development of technical devices.

For further information on the Priority Program "Human performance under multiple cognitive task requirements: From basic mechanisms to optimized task scheduling": DFG Priority Program (Schwerpunktprogramm) SPP 1772 

Project Director:
PD Dr. Roman Liepelt

Duration:
2014–2016

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Human information processing often takes place during interaction with others (co-action). Co-action primarily serves to achieve shared goals. One of the best-known paradigms for studying joint action is the social Simon paradigm. When two people share a Simon task, a (social) Simon effect emerges (i.e., performance is better when the stimulus and response locations correspond). However, this effect disappears when a single person performs the same task alone. Co-action is therefore regarded as fundamentally different from individual action, where a person attempts to achieve their goals alone. During the first grant phase, we were able to show that a Simon effect can also be induced in individuals when they interact with a robot or an event-producing object. The goal of the second phase of the project is to investigate whether joint action is mediated by specifically social mechanisms or can be explained by cross-domain processes. The project aims to examine the role of attention in joint action using behavioral methods. Furthermore, the project will examine the role of similarity among agents, spatial information, and body information, as well as the role of agency in joint action. These investigations serve to test and expand individual aspects of the cognitive model of action sharing based on referential coding, which we developed during the first project phase. By specifying the cognitive mechanisms of joint action control, the planned project will provide important answers to one of the central questions of our time: What are the cognitive mechanisms underlying joint action that have laid the foundation for our human cultural development and all modern societies?

Project Leader:
PD Dr. Roman Liepelt

Duration:
2011–2014

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
The ability to coordinate our actions with those of others is crucial to our success as individuals and in social interactions. One of the greatest mysteries in cognitive neuroscience in the current decade is how joint action differs from individual task processing. One of the best-known examples of joint action is the social Simon effect. When two participants perform this version of the Simon task together, a Simon effect occurs (i.e., performance is better with spatial stimulus-response S-R correspondence), whereas no effect is observed when participants perform the task alone. The social Simon effect is generally regarded as a good indicator of the co-representation of actions. Based on recent experimental data, we hypothesize that the dimensional overlap of spatial and non-spatial task features plays an important role in the emergence of the social Simon effect. The applied research aims to test and extend this assumption by investigating the role of attention and dimensional overlap in mediating the social Simon effect. Furthermore, the study examines how participants can effectively separate events for themselves and others by reducing dimensional overlaps, and how this is achieved in the human brain.

Project Director:
PD Dr. Roman Liepelt

Duration:
2002–2006

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Another research focus is the investigation of the executive processes required to coordinate the processing steps in dual-task situations. It is often assumed that executive processes control the timing of potentially interfering processing steps. As a result of this planning, dual-task costs—such as increased processing time or errors—can be observed when performing two tasks simultaneously compared to performing single tasks. However, some recent findings suggest that dual-task costs may disappear after prolonged practice with dual-tasking. A primary goal of this project is to specify the nature of the learning processes that lead to the disappearance of dual-task costs in the PRP paradigm. What exactly is learned through the repeated performance of two tasks? That is, what kind of executive knowledge enables participants to perform the tasks without dual-task costs?

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
and Bernd Gerland

Funding:
Federal Institute for Sports Science (BISp)

Duration:
January 2013 – December 2014 

Project details:
Motor disorders occur repeatedly in sports, as well as in other activities. This research project investigates the so-called “yips” in golf putting. This refers to an involuntary twitching of the forearms or wrists during the movement of the golf club toward the ball. This can impair the performance of those affected. Current theories regarding the etiology range from psychological explanations to attributing the cause to neurological factors. Due to the unclear attribution of the cause, no scientifically validated intervention methods exist. In this research study, a specific intervention training program is applied to affected golfers to help them regain control over their motor skills. By interpreting the mechanisms of action of exploratory exercises, new hypotheses regarding the yips are generated, and understanding of this previously under-researched phenomenon is expanded. To this end, a diagnostic study and a case study on the intervention are presented.

The results of the intervention study suggest that the yips are not a neurophysiological problem. The relatively rapid identification of yips-free movement patterns in all three individual cases could indicate that the yips are a psychological phenomenon. The direct effect of context-manipulating exercises on the yips and the statements made by those affected during and after the intervention phase suggest that the yips may be an unconsciously learned disorder. Conditioning processes at the moment the golf club strikes the golf ball could play an important role here. The yips reflect an intensified natural “basic twitch” at the moment of impact, which has spiraled out of control due to conditioned anticipation processes regarding the collision. These adverse learning processes could also be transferred to golf through the practice of sports with similar movement and collision patterns (“transfer yips”). The specific training exercises serve as exposure therapy. The effects achieved are an expression of successful extinction learning. This also influences the mental and emotional levels. This could point to specific connections between cognition, emotion, and behavior that still need to be explored.

Project Leader:
PD Dr. Roman Liepelt

Duration:
2005–2008

Funding:
EDICI-12929 

Project details:
My research focuses on the cortical and cognitive mechanisms involved in the inhibition of imitative response tendencies. In particular, I investigate the conditions under which the observation of biological movements leads to the activation of internal motor representations. Specifically, the anterior fronto-medial cortex (aFMC) and the right temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) area may play a crucial role in the inhibition of imitative behavior. Methodologically, I use functional MRI and behavioral methods to investigate these research questions.

Project Leaders:
Dr. Uri Borges
, PD Dr. Dr. Sylvain Laborde
, Dr. Babett Lobinger

Duration:
December 2020 – September 2022

Funding:
Federal Institute for Sports Science (BISp)

Project details:
Further development and testing of an app-based breathing training program for athletes to optimize psychophysiological processes that may be affected by COVID-19.

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab, Dr. Lisa Musculus
, Prof. Dr. Azzurra Ruggeri (Technical University of Munich)

Project staff:
Laura Juppen (Research Assistant)

Duration:
October 2018 – January 2024

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
The goal of this project is to understand the bidirectional connection between the minimal self and sensorimotor and cognitive abilities from a developmental perspective of embodied cognition. By integrating cognitive, developmental, and movement sciences, we address one of the ultimate goals of the SPP call by investigating how core mechanisms (i.e., internal models, references) generate a self in the course of ontogenetic development (i.e., across the lifespan) or the acquisition of expertise (i.e., during the training of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities). Specifically, we will address one of the five questions posed in the SPP call: "How does the creation and existence of a self affect sensorimotor abilities and cognitive processes?" From a developmental perspective of embodied cognition, this question cannot be answered without considering the bidirectionality between the minimal self and sensorimotor and cognitive abilities. Theoretically, we propose the mechanism that the optimization of the internal model through the integration of sensorimotor reafferences and cognitive feedback leads to a stabilization of the minimal self. The stability of the minimal self, in turn, promotes sensorimotor and cognitive abilities. To investigate this mechanism, we will conduct two large-scale studies. In Study 1, we will examine, with toddlers and adults, how sensorimotor and cognitive abilities influence the minimal self. In Study 2, we will examine how manipulating the minimal self influences sensorimotor and cognitive abilities. Our theoretical contribution will be an empirically tested mechanism of the minimal self, namely the optimization of the internal model through the use of sensorimotor reafferences and cognitive feedback. This mechanism will contribute to the development of an integrative theoretical framework. In turn, our minimal self tests, using kinematic data from movements in complex motor tasks, can facilitate the Turing test, which can be tested in robots.

Project Leader:
Thomas Hosang (Ph.D. candidate)
PD Dr. Roman Liepelt

Duration:
2015–2018

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Multitasking is becoming an increasingly widespread phenomenon in modern society, as we are confronted with ever-growing demands on our multitasking abilities in both our daily lives and our professional lives. Technical devices, for example, increasingly require visual-manual interactions in which perception and action occur within a shared visual-spatial domain (manual control of tablets). Modern tablet PCs, which are controlled with the fingers, are also being used more and more frequently to control workflows in complex technical work environments where multiple tasks must be handled simultaneously, such as in the cockpits of trains and modern aircraft. However, current research on the processing of body-related information clearly shows that body information plays an important role in cognitive processes. For example, a recent study shows that there is an effect of the spatial distance between the responding hand and the stimulus. When hands and stimuli are located within the same visual-spatial attentional focus, this leads to increased allocation of attention to the area around the hand region and to enhanced cognitive control. An important feature of dual-tasking is that multiple stimuli must be processed simultaneously. In this project, we investigate the effects of hand proximity on dual-task processing under conditions of simultaneous stimulus presentation. One goal of the project is to identify cognitive control parameters that are specifically influenced by the proximity of body information to the stimulus. We are investigating whether altered visuospatial attention affects both stimuli equally in the spatial area between both hands and how the position of the hands alters cognitive control parameters involved in task-switching processes at the central processing bottleneck. Furthermore, we investigate the influence of enhanced stimulus processing in the immediate vicinity of the hands on the prioritization of task order and the reconfiguration processes involved in changing task order. The body-based cognition approach to multitasking is intended not only to advance theoretical models in basic research on the flexibility of cognitive control processes and the coordination of task sets in dual-task conditions, but also to provide new impetus for knowledge transfer to applied cognitive research and the further development of technical devices.

For further information on the Priority Program "Human performance under multiple cognitive task requirements: From basic mechanisms to optimized task scheduling": DFG Priority Program (Schwerpunktprogramm) SPP 1772  

Project Leaders:
Laura Bröker (Ph.D. candidate)
, Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Prof. Dr. Stefan Künzell
, Dr. Rita de Oliviera

Duration:
2015–2018

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Multitasking occurs when two or more tasks are performed simultaneously. Most studies have focused on the parallel execution of two tasks, known as the dual-tasking paradigm. It is commonly observed that performance declines under dual-tasking conditions compared to single-tasking conditions. The mechanisms underlying this dual-task interference have been extensively investigated. The research strategy involved inferring the duration of cognitive processing from reaction times (RT) measured in experiments. Throughout history, various theories regarding the occurrence of dual-task interference have been developed and supported. For example, bottleneck theories postulate the existence of a central unit that processes information serially. When this unit is occupied, other processes must queue up until the unit becomes available again. Welford (1974) and Pashler (1994) identified response selection as this instance, but others have argued for bottlenecks occurring earlier or later in the information processing stream (Meyer & Kieras, 1997). Another approach is the claim made by capacity models, which accept parallel processing but postulate a general capacity limit that is either global and nonspecific (Kahneman, 1973) or divided into several modular capacities (Navon & Gopher, 1979; Wickens, 2008).

While these experimental paradigms have successfully investigated cognitive processes and dual-task interference, they are unsuitable for uncovering the mechanisms of interference. This is of great importance, as knowledge of the mechanisms would make it possible to discover strategies for minimizing interference. In RT paradigms, it is important that neither the stimulus nor the response can be anticipated, as anticipation would compromise the validity of the RT measurement. We argue that, in contrast to the laboratory setting, anticipation and planning of tasks are common methods for controlling movements in everyday life. Künzell et al. (2013), for example, showed that everyday movements are planned in advance in such a way that optimal control is possible during the critical phase of the movement. Ruthruff et al. (2006) speculated that one way to manage dual tasks is to plan one task in advance and buffer this plan; while this task is guided by the buffered plan, the second task can be planned and executed without interference. While Ruthruff et al. (2006) excluded the use of predictive strategies in their experimental design, we will investigate how these strategies would improve performance in multitasking situations. We argue that this predictive strategy is dominant in well-learned activities of daily living for coping with dual- and multitasking demands. When walking, for example, a path must be scanned for obstacles, uneven surfaces, and puddles. Steps are monitored based on the expected effects of these features (Patla, 1998). Soccer and basketball players also perform ball dribbling using feedforward control while perceiving the playing patterns of teammates and opponents to make tactical decisions (Esteves, de Oliveira, & Araújo, 2011). We assume that dual tasks can be successfully performed if at least one of the tasks is well-learned and takes place in a predictable environment (situational enhancement).

Our proposal focuses on the question of how predictability can support multitasking performance through situational enhancement. This is a crucial factor in the research cluster on flexibility (Kiesel, Müller, & Koch, 2014), as it focuses on strategies for overcoming potential performance limitations. Furthermore, it complements research on situational impairment (Kiesel et al., 2014). While Kiesel et al. focus on the situational impairment of multitasking performance, we will focus on predictability as a source of situational enhancement of multitasking performance. This idea is not new (Ruthruff et al., 2006), but previous research has lacked a clear theoretical explanation and empirical investigations. Nevertheless, some theoretical ideas are consistent with the concept we refer to in the next paragraph.

Further information on "Human Performance under Multiple Cognitive Task Demands: From Fundamental Mechanisms to Optimized Task Planning": DFG Priority Program (Focus Program) SPP 1772 

Project Leaders:
Jonna Löffler (Ph.D. candidate on the project)
, Prof. Dr. Dr. M. Raab
, Prof. Dr. Rouwen Cañal-Bruland

Duration:
November 2014 – November 2017

Funding:
German Research Foundation (DFG)

Project details:
Embodied cognition explains the phenomenon that abstract knowledge, such as representations of time and space, is partly grounded in sensorimotor processes. Based on the assumption of a bidirectional relationship, it is predicted that movements influence the perception of time and space, and that changes in representations of time and space influence movement control. The goal of the project is the empirical and systematic analysis of the bidirectionality hypothesis from an embodied cognition perspective, which is based on the interaction between humans and their environment through movement. Empirical findings show that, on the one hand, representations of time are moderated by spatial metaphors, whereas, on the other hand, temporal metaphors do not influence spatial representations to the same extent. This asymmetry in the metaphorical mapping of space and time allows specific predictions to be tested experimentally. The unique value and novelty of the project lies in the investigation of these bidirectionality and asymmetry hypotheses based on the assessment of the influence of kinematic qualities of whole-body movements on spatial and temporal representations, and the influence of temporal and spatial metaphorical instructions on movement qualities.

Research question: How are sensorimotor experiences and abstract representations of space and time linked?

Methods: Online processing of ambiguous questions regarding space and time during movement. 30 participants per group. Dependent variables: frame of reference, response time.

Project Director:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
  

Project team members:
Dr. Alexandra Pizzera, Christian Kennel (Ph.D. defense 2015)

Funding:
German Research Foundation

Duration:
2012–2015

Theoretical Approach.
Current approaches in cognitive science discuss the role of the motor system in cognitive processes. The question arises as to whether some “cognitive” functions might have evolved from genuinely “motor” or “body-related” functions.

Objective/Research Question.
The objective of the planned research series is to investigate whether the same mechanisms used to control one’s own movements are also central to the perception of events in the environment.

Method.
Perception and action experiments using natural, self-generated movement sounds; intervention with manipulated acoustic training stimuli

Results.
The results of the perception and action experiments used show that the nature of the action influences perception. A common mechanism therefore seems likely.

Publications

Kennel, C., Hohmann, T., & Raab, M. (2014). Action perception via auditory information: Agent identification and discrimination with complex movement sounds. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26, 157-165.

Kennel, C., Pizzera, A., Hohmann, T., Schubotz, R. I., Murgia, M., Agostini, T., & Raab, M. (2014). The perception of natural and modulated movement sounds. Perception, 43, 796-804.

Kennel, C., Streese, L., Pizzera, A., Justen, C., Hohmann, T., & Raab, M. (2015). Auditory reafferences: The influence of real-time feedback on movement control. Frontiers in Psychology 6, 69. 

Fast-paced breathing interventions in sports: testing the physiological effects on the autonomic nervous system

Voigt, Laura (Project Leader)
Iskra, Maša (Project Partner)
Laborde, Sylvain (Project Partner)
Mosley, Emma (Project Partner)

Department of
Performance Psychology, Bournemouth University

Status: Completed
Start / End:
March 1, 2023 → May 31, 2024

Project Description:
Athletic performance requires optimal physiological and psychological activation. Fast-paced breathing (FPB) techniques are being discussed as an intervention to specifically increase the level of arousal in cases of underarousal. However, the underlying mechanisms have not yet been sufficiently clarified.

Based on the neurovisceral integration model (Thayer et al., 2009), the project assumes that voluntary changes in breathing influence both the parasympathetic and sympathetic components of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Performance improvements through FPB are theoretically explained by so-called “reciprocal sympathetic activation”—that is, simultaneous activation of the sympathetic nervous system alongside a reduction in parasympathetic activity.

However, previous studies have exclusively measured parasympathetic activity (e.g., via vagally mediated heart rate variability, vmHRV), while the effect on the sympathetic nervous system has not been examined in a differentiated manner. The project addressed this methodological gap through the combined measurement of:

• vmHRV (index of parasympathetic activity)
• pre-ejection period (PEP; index of sympathetic activity)

The goal was to establish a theoretical and empirical foundation for evidence-based FPB interventions in sports. To this end, two different breathing frequencies were experimentally investigated to identify the frequency that reliably triggers the desired reciprocal sympathetic activation.

In a follow-up study, it was examined whether the autonomic activation induced by FPB actually leads to performance improvements in a sport-specific task.

The project contributes to the further development of the neurovisceral integration model (particularly with regard to the sympathetic component), improves methodological standards in respiratory research, and formulates evidence-based guidelines for the use of rapid breathing interventions in a sports context.

Project Leader:
Dr. Sylvain Laborde

Duration:
February 2016 – December 2016 

Funding: University Internal Research Funding (HIFF)

Project details:
The ability to concentrate under the pressure of competition and make the best decisions when the outcome of the game is on the line is crucial for athletes to achieve peak performance. Interestingly, a simple, efficient, and cost-effective technique could help athletes achieve this goal: slow breathing. Theoretical and empirical studies suggest that slow breathing can be an efficient and reliable way to increase vagal tone. Vagal tone, in turn, is positively associated with self-regulation at the cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and health levels, according to the neurovisceral integration model. To date, it is not known how slow breathing exercises can best be performed, e.g., in terms of parameters such as optimal respiratory rate, duration of the exercise, and duration of the effect. Furthermore, while a theoretical link between the resonance frequency model and the neurovisceral integration model has been established, the effects of slow breathing on cognitive executive functions through changes in vagal tone have not yet been investigated. This project has two objectives: First, based on a preliminary pilot study, three main questions will be addressed to clarify the characteristics of slow breathing that lead to a greater increase in vagal tone. Second, the influence of slow breathing on cognitive performance will be investigated. Third, based on the results of this project, a smartphone app will be developed to help people more easily manage the stress they face in daily life. 

Project Leaders:
Dr. Alexandra Pizzera
, Dr. Patrick Wahl

Duration:
March 2016 – March 2017

Funding:
University Internal Research Funding (HIFF)

Project details:
Soccer referees must make quick and correct decisions while under physical stress (e.g., fatigue) and psychological stress (e.g., pressure from spectators, players, and the media). Researchers play an important role in helping referees make the best decisions under high stress, such as during international competitions. Regarding the influence of stress on referees’ decision-making performance, researchers have so far taken two different approaches. On the one hand, the physical demands placed on referees during a match have been examined. On the other hand, some studies have investigated the influence of psychological stress on referees’ decision-making performance. In a new book on the research and practice of sports refereeing, the world’s leading experts in this field have summarized the current state of research (MacMahon, Mascarenhas, Plessner, Pizzera, Oudejans, & Raab (2015). However, several new questions have emerged that remain unanswered to this day, such as how referees cope with the difficult situation of typically experiencing both types of stress simultaneously. The goal of the proposed project is therefore to investigate, within the framework of a study, the influence of physical and psychological stress on the decision-making performance of soccer referees. To investigate this influence, the decision-making performance of soccer referees will be assessed under various conditions that simulate the physical and psychological strain referees experience during a match. This will be done simultaneously by asking the referees to make decisions while running on a treadmill and/or being exposed to an audience/auditorium. The results could contribute to a better understanding of the relationships between action, cognition, and emotion, particularly the effects of fatigue and psychological stress on cognitive processes. As for the project’s applied value, individual fitness reports could be developed that address both the physical performance and decision-making of referees and are linked to specific stress management methods that referees could apply during and outside of competition. Furthermore, referees could train in a highly effective ecological setting alongside the matches they officiate on the field. In particular, the combination of physical and psychological stress that referees experience on the field could be simulated in the laboratory, which would offer additional training opportunities.

Project Leaders:
Damian Jeraj
, Franziska Lautenbach
, Jonna Löffler
, Lisa Musculus

Duration:
January 2016 – December 2016

Funding: University Internal Research Funding (HIFF)

Project details:
In sports, upward movements are common not only during the performance of the sport itself but also for mutual encouragement, cheering, or support in team sports. Therefore, based on the theory of the biosocial model of status and dominance (Mazur, 2013) and embodiment (Barsalou, 2008), we compare various prototypical movements and measure physiological-hormonal, behavioral, motivational, and social parameters. For sports science practice, the practical value of this research project lies in the fact that theory-based, empirically tested interventions can be derived. 

Project Leaders:
Stefan Ackermann (Ph.D. candidate)
and PD Dr. Dr. Sylvain Laborde

Duration:
March 2022 – March 2023

Funding:
University Internal Research Funding (HIFF)

Project details:
The aim of this project is to determine which of the conditions listed below is the strongest trigger of the diving reflex, particularly based on the effects on cardiac vagal and sympathetic activity.
A within-subjects design with 5 conditions was devised: 1. breath-holding in warm water, 2. breath-holding in cold water, 3. breath-holding in an empty bowl, 4. snorkel breathing in cold water, 5. snorkel breathing in warm water. At the beginning of the experiment, participants first practice snorkel breathing in cold water. This serves to acclimate them to the nose clip, snorkel breathing, and the cold water in order to prevent stress reactions during the actual test (Choate et al., 2014). Subsequently, in a second practice condition, the maximum time the subject can hold their breath with their face in cold water (apnea) is measured. This performance is recorded as a potential moderator for the development of RMSSD in the subsequent apnea conditions (Costalat et al., 2015; Lemaître et al., 2008). Before and after each of the five 30-second conditions, a rest measurement of equal duration takes place, during which the participants breathe through the snorkel in a forward-leaning position (as close as possible to the water basin, but without contact with the water). During this period, as well as during the two snorkeling conditions, respiratory rate is recorded to rule out the influence of breathing on the RMSSD or to account for it in the data analysis. Additionally, after each trial, they answer questions about their current state of well-being. Finally, a 3-minute break follows to allow the parameters to return to their baseline levels and prevent carryover effects. To ensure the most standardized experimental conditions possible, participants are guided through the experiment by the PsychoPy software, which includes integrated instructional videos, texts, and questionnaires. Randomization is also handled through this software, completely independently of the experimenters.

Analysis of the Determinants of Parental Behavior in Sports Using a Psychophysiological Approach

Project leaders:
Valeria Eckardt (Ph.D. candidate)
, Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab
, Dr. Babett Lobinger

Duration:
September 2019 – July 2023

Funding:
University Internal Research Funding (HIFF)

Project Leaders:
Sinikka Heisler (Ph.D. candidate)
, Dr. Babett Lobinger
, Dr. Lisa Musculus

Duration:
January 2021 – December 2023

Funding:
Internal university research funding

Project staff member:
Lisa Musculus (recipient of a scholarship from the German National Academic Foundation since 2016)

Project Leaders:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab, Dr. Babett Lobinger

Theoretical Approach.
The theoretical basis of this doctoral project is the cognitive psychological approach known as “simple heuristics in sport” (Raab, 2012). This approach is used to predict the development of expertise in sport (de Oliveira, Lobinger, & Raab, 2014). To this end, it is combined with a developmental psychological perspective (Marasso, Laborde, Bardaglio, & Raab, 2014) and systematically tested. Accordingly, heuristics—which, as cognitive rules of thumb, facilitate rapid decision-making in sports situations—can be conceptualized as a link between innate abilities, past experience, athletes’ learned skills, and the situational context, and may change depending on the athletes’ stage of development.

Objective/Research Questions.
The objective of this dissertation is to investigate the extent to which heuristic decision-making is relevant to the development of expertise in sports. Specifically, the following research questions will be addressed:

1. How does heuristic decision-making develop in sports?

2. Can heuristic decision-making predict (future) expertise in sports?

3. Is the relationship between heuristic decision-making and expertise age-dependent?

Method (Procedure, Sample).
A combined cross-sectional and longitudinal design will be used to investigate the research questions. Soccer players of different ages (between-subject design) from a youth academy will be tested multiple times at regular intervals over a two-year period (within-subject design). To this end, established decision-making tests are used to measure heuristic decision-making strategies and the underlying cognitive processes.

Transfer (expectation).
For sports practice, the results promise an evidence-based foundation for age-specific criteria that can predict the development of expertise. These criteria enable empirically validated talent identification and development and can, for example, serve as the basis for designing age-appropriate decision-making training.

Project Director:
Prof. Dr. Dr. Markus Raab

Project staff (contact):
Peter Csapo (peter.csapo@­whu.edu; dissertation defense 2015)

Funding:
Jürgen Manchot Foundation

Theoretical Approach.
The hot-hand phenomenon posits that players are more likely to make their next shot if they have made their previous shots than if they have missed them. While it has often been demonstrated that belief in this phenomenon is very strong, there is disagreement regarding its existence, and the phenomenon has rarely been demonstrated, particularly in team sports. Instead, the literature has often speculated that the opposing team might react to a player’s winning streak by increasing defensive pressure, thereby forcing the supposedly “hot” player to take more difficult shots and counteracting the hot-hand effect.

A relatively new line of research also examines the ecological rationality of the hot-hand belief. Here, the key issue is not whether the hot-hand phenomenon can be statistically proven, but whether behavior based on this belief can contribute to achieving goals. For example, if a basketball team makes ball-handling decisions based on the hot-hand belief and scores more points with this strategy, this behavior can be classified as ecologically rational—regardless of whether the hot-hand effect actually exists.

Objective/Research Question.
The objective of this study is to examine, from three different perspectives, whether basketball players and coaches increase their defensive intensity based on the hot-hand belief. Additionally, the study tests whether a hot-hand effect can be demonstrated when shot difficulty is incorporated into the analysis. Furthermore, the ecological rationality of hot-hand behavior is analyzed, and conditions are derived that must be met for such behavior in defense to be classified as ecologically rational.

Method
In Study 1, changes in the shooting behavior of professional basketball players are analyzed based on offensive statistics, and these findings are subsequently applied to potential changes in defensive behavior.

Study 2 investigates the decision-making behavior of professional basketball coaches in an experimental setting and examines whether coaches modify their defensive strategy based on an opponent’s hot streak. Additionally, the consequences of the coaches’ decision-making behavior are analyzed by having basketball players decide when to pass or shoot depending on their previous performance and defensive pressure.
Finally, Study 3 uses new statistics that directly measure defensive intensity to examine whether basketball players’ defensive behavior changes based on an opposing player’s hot hand. It also analyzes how players’ shooting accuracy evolves depending on the winning streak and the difficulty of the shot.

Results.
Overall, the results from all three studies show that defenders’ behavior is based on the belief in the hot hand and that they increase the pressure on a supposedly hot player. This influences players’ shooting behavior, leading them to take significantly more difficult shots following hot streaks, with the opposite trend observed after several consecutive missed shots. However, even after accounting for shot difficulty, no hot-hand effect can be detected, as players’ shooting percentages tend to be lower following hot streaks. For example, easy shots were converted significantly less frequently than was the case after several missed shots. Furthermore, the adaptivity of hot-hand behavior is discussed, with the observed behavior being classified as non-adaptive.

Transfer (expectation).
Belief in the hot-hand phenomenon has practical implications for the decision-making behavior of coaches and players, particularly regarding the choice of defensive strategy, ball-handling decisions, and shooting behavior. This study demonstrated that belief in the hot hand is very strong and widespread; however, the behavior can usually be considered non-adaptive and thus tends to hinder team success. Coaches and players who are aware of the non-adaptive nature and widespread prevalence of hot-hand behavior can use this to their advantage and turn the non-adaptive nature of the opponent’s hot-hand behavior into a strategic advantage by, for example, optimizing ball distribution decisions and player positioning on the basketball court.

Publications: 

Csapo, P., Avugos, S., Raab, M., & Bar-Eli, M. (2014). The effect of perceived streakiness on the shot-taking behavior of basketball players. European Journal of Sport Science. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2014.982205

Csapo, P., Avugos, S., Raab, M., & Bar-Eli, M. (2015). How should “hot” players in basketball be defended? The use of fast-and-frugal heuristics by basketball coaches and players in response to streakiness. Journal of Sports Sciences. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2014.999251

Csapo, P., & Raab, M. (2014). “Hand down, man down.” Analysis of defensive adjustments in response to the hot hand in basketball using novel defense metrics. PLOS ONE, 9(12): e114184. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114184 

Project Team Member:
Damian Jeraj (Thesis 2016)

In both school sports and competitive artistic gymnastics, teachers and coaches provide important guidance during error correction to help learners optimize their movements or improve their performance. The goal of this dissertation was to examine the error correction process in order to ultimately provide learners with optimal feedback.

Based on findings from the fields of evaluation and decision-making processes, a heuristic concept was developed that is grounded in factors influencing the error correction process. However, it remained unclear when and how these feedback factors affect the individual steps of error correction. First, the study investigated the extent to which these feedback factors are actually relevant in practice (school sports and club sports). A notable finding is that, according to student teachers, one’s own motor experience is the most relevant factor for error correction, whereas physical education instructors rate this factor as the least relevant. This suggests that the underlying training content appears to be too diverse and requires adaptation.

Subsequently, two of the feedback factors (knowledge & motor experience) were exploratively manipulated using intervention measures to determine their influence on error detection performance. Contrary to expectations, the results show no differences from the control conditions, so an interpretation of the results remains speculative. Nevertheless, it should be clarified in the future exactly how and at which specific stages of error correction the feedback factors exert their influence. An indication of an altered mental structure resulting from the manipulation of the knowledge feedback factor has already been observed at the descriptive level. Fundamentally, it should be examined to what extent the developed concept should be modified or retained. Furthermore, future studies should systematically address how the feedback factors can be made objectively measurable.

Publications

Jeraj, D. (2016). The Error Correction Process of Coaches and Teachers in Gymnastics (Doctoral dissertation). University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim.

Manuscript I: Jeraj, D., Hennig, L., & Heinen, T. (2015). The Error Correction Process – A Heuristic Concept. In T. Heinen (Ed.) Advances in Visual Perception Research (pp. 193-202). New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Manuscript II: Jeraj, D., Veit, J., Heinen, T., & Raab, M. (2015). How do Gymnastics Coaches Provide Movement Feedback in Training? International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching, 10 (6), 1015–1024.

Manuscript III: Jeraj, D., & Lautenbach, F. (2016). Feedback Factors in Physical Education: From the Pre-service Teachers’ Perspective. International Journal of Physical Education, 2, 35–41.

Manuscript IV: Jeraj, D. (in press). Error Perception in Gymnastics: Two Consecutive Interventions. Science of Gymnastics Journal.

Since 2014, Damian Jeraj has been a fellow in the Doctoral College for Educational Research at the University of Hildesheim.

Project Lead:
Franziska Lautenbach (Thesis 2016)

Project details:
In our competitive society, high performance is one of the most important factors for success. Yet it is precisely in stressful and thus emotionally charged situations that high performance can be critical. An emotion is “an organized psychophysiological response to ongoing interactions with the environment” (Lazarus, 2000, p. 230). One emotion that is often confused with stress and plays a significant role in athletic performance is anxiety (Lazarus, 2000). In competitive situations, particularly in sports, anxiety is the most extensively studied emotion (Hanin, 2000). A physiological response to anxiety is an increase in cortisol levels (e.g., Buchanan, al'Absi, & Lovallo, 1999). Cortisol is the end product of stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis), which responds to a broad spectrum of psychosocial stressors, including ambiguous, novel, uncontrollable, unpredictable stimuli, and situations involving high ego involvement (Hellhammer & Hellhammer, 2008).

To date, cortisol has been used primarily as a passive marker indicating how stressed athletes are objectively, e.g., on the first day of a competition (e.g., Filaire, Alix, Ferrand, & Verger, 2009). The first experimentally controlled study to demonstrate a link between cortisol and athletic performance focused on a specific performance parameter (i.e., the second tennis serve) before and after an anxiety induction (i.e., the second part of the TSST). A negative correlation was found between cortisol and serve performance (Lautenbach et al., 2014), providing initial preliminary evidence of a link between cortisol and performance, although the underlying mechanisms have not yet been understood.

A possible underlying mechanism explaining the relationship between cortisol and performance can be found in executive functions (i.e., inhibition, including selective attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility; Diamond, 2012). It is generally accepted that cortisol influences cognitive functions (e.g., Suay & Salvador, 2012), since cortisol can cross the blood-brain barrier and glucocorticoid receptors are found in nearly all organs of the body, with particularly high concentrations in the prefrontal cortical structures (Putman & Berling, 2011), which are responsible for higher cognitive functions and are therefore sensitive to changes in cortisol levels.

This doctoral thesis has three objectives: (i) to draft a position paper on the existing literature in the field of sports psychology, incorporating research findings from cognitive psychology, and to formulate a working hypothesis (i.e., a theoretical model) regarding the underlying mechanisms of the cortisol-performance relationship; (ii) Testing the working hypothesis in a laboratory setting designed for athletes by having them perform cognitive computer tasks used in cognitive psychology research (i.e., emotional Stroop task, emotional n-back task); (iii) Addressing previous methodological shortcomings in sports psychology research by elevating cortisol levels via the so-called cold-pressor task, in order to causally attribute changes in attention and (athletic) performance to cortisol levels. A potential intervention study is being considered to enhance cortisol levels conducive to improved performance.

Publication:

Lautenbach, F., Laborde, S., Achtzehn, S., & Raab, M. (2014). Preliminary evidence of salivary cortisol predicting performance in a controlled setting. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 42, 218-224.